Howard, The Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994).Ĭaroline Cox, A Proper Sense of Honor: Service and Sacrifice in George Washington’s Army (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Knopf, 1994) This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. Given the availability of tough, legal methods of proven effectiveness, why did soldiers also use torture, which was unprecedented and illegal? This chapter provides background on the answer to this question by examining the history of the laws and norms of war and then reviews the history of the Spanish-American War, which culminated in the United States taking possession of the Philippines. What is surprising is that soldiers began to use torture, a tactic never before used in American warfare. Given their legal status and long history, it is not surprising that commanders adopted these strategies. Despite the public outcry against them, the practices of population concentration, property destruction, and the destruction of food supplies were legal strategies that America had used in prior conflicts, even against its own citizens in the Civil War. It was thus particularly ironic that the American army used torture, population concentration, property destruction, and food embargoes to win the war against Filipino guerrillas after having denounced the same strategies when used by the Spanish. The Philippine War was a direct result of the Spanish-American War, which the United States fought in part due to concerns over Spanish mistreatment of Cuban guerrillas and civilians.

The Uncivil War by Robert R. Mackey